The national economy is a complex multi-level system, consisting of many different types of elements: sectors, complexes, industries, etc. Their composition and the relationship between individual elements form the macro structure of the economy.
The theory of structure plays a very important role in explaining the patterns of functioning of the national economic system. It reflects the underlying factors of economic dynamics and the results of the reproduction process. The growth in production volume in value terms is influenced by lower prices under the influence of scientific and technical progress and other qualitative factors, which leads to a relative decrease in reproduction volumes. Economic progress in this case is embodied in the parameters of the macrostructure, in the structural transformations of the national economy, which ensures the so-called structural effect. Together with heme, sudden changes in structure cause structural crises, leading to very painful consequences for the national economy and international economic relations. Thus, the energy crisis of 1973, caused by a sharp increase in world oil prices, had a deep and long-term impact on the development of the economies of many countries and changed the attitude of the population and governments to the problem of resource conservation. Great shocks are caused by financial and currency crises, overproduction or underproduction of agricultural products (agrarian crises). Sharp structural changes are associated with the industrialization or deindustrialization of the country and the militarization of the economy.
The structure of the national economy (macrostructure) can be considered in various aspects: from the point of view of the composition and correlation of spheres of activity (sectors of the economy), sectoral composition, in reproduction and regional aspects. Of no small importance are the structural relationships of individual aspects of the economy (foreign trade structure, composition, ratio of economic potential, national wealth, etc.). Currently, based on the national accounting system, statistics distinguishes 5 institutional sectors:
- non-financial enterprises;
- financial institutions;
- government agencies;
- non-profit organizations;
- households.
From the point of view of classifying branches of economic activity according to their functional purpose, the following areas are distinguished:
- 1. Material production or commodity sector: agriculture, industry, construction, water, gas and energy supply, in which material goods (goods) are produced.
- 2. Sphere (sector) of commodity services and distribution: transport, trade and storage, where the distribution of material goods is carried out - mediation between material production and the population.
- 3. The sphere of intangible services: education and culture, healthcare and physical education, sports, social services, other government organizations; depreciation of the country’s fixed assets is also reflected here.
Statistics from the System of National Accounting (SNA) currently highlight the following types of economic activity:
- 1. Agriculture, hunting and forestry;
- 2. Fishing and fish farming;
- 3. Mining;
- 4. Manufacturing industries;
- 5. Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water;
- 6. Construction;
- 7. Wholesale and retail trade, repair of vehicles and personal items;
- 8. Hotels and restaurants;
- 9. Transport and communications;
- 10. Financial activities;
- 11. Real estate transactions, rental and provision
- 12. Public administration and military security, compulsory social security;
- 13. Education;
- 14. Healthcare and service delivery;
- 15. Provision of other communal, social and personal services.
The reproductive structure of the national economy is considered in terms of the relationship between consumption and accumulation, between the elements of fixed assets, the production sector and the service sector.
The share of accumulation in the newly produced product is very important for economic development. Typically, the share of accumulation for developed countries is 15-20% of national income (for Japan - up to 30%). In Russia, the share of savings has decreased significantly over the past 20 years and is about 15%.
The most widespread sectoral structure of industry and agriculture.
Statistics include 16 industries as industries: energy, which includes 7 industries, fuel industry (16 industries), ferrous metallurgy (11), non-ferrous metallurgy (36), chemical and petrochemical industries (32), mechanical engineering and metalworking (136), forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries (19), building materials industry (32), glass and porcelain and earthenware industries (10), light industry (48), food industry (34), microbiological industry (7), flour and cereal industry and feed milling industry (2), medical industry (3), printing industry and other industries (13 industries).
The sectoral structure by type of activity in 2012 was as follows: agriculture, hunting and forestry - 3.8% of GDP; mining - 10.9; manufacturing industries - 15.9; production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - 5.1; construction - 6.5; trade - 19.7; transport and communications - 8.2; financial activities 17.1; state administration - 13.5%.
There is a tendency to unite individual industries into larger, homogeneous complexes (fuel and energy, mining and metallurgical, military-industrial, industrial, consumer, etc.). Abroad, the concept of industry clusters is used (production of household goods, healthcare cluster, which includes pharmaceuticals, production of medical equipment, etc.). Clusters are also being formed in Russia. This is how a textile cluster was created in the Ivanovo region.
The core of the modern economy is the knowledge-intensive, high-tech sector. The latter includes aerospace complex, radio-electronic complex, specialized military-oriented industries", knowledge-intensive sector of the chemical industry", nuclear industry, including the production of electricity at nuclear power plants, as well as the disposal of nuclear waste.
The fuel and energy complex is of great importance in Russia, accounting for about 30% of industrial output, 32% of consolidated budget revenues and 54% of the federal budget, 54% of exports and 45% of foreign exchange earnings. The mining and metallurgical complex accounts for 16.3% of industrial output, ferrous metallurgy provides 8% of revenue, 6% of payments to the budget and 12 billion rubles. contributions to extra-budgetary funds.
Of particular importance for a socially oriented economy is the consumer complex - a set of industries and types of economic activities involved in the production of consumer goods and the provision of services to the population. During the post-reform years, the consumer complex has undergone significant transformations - the development of the main industries and productions has sharply slowed down under the influence of the general recession and the influx of foreign goods. At the same time, the volume of services provided to the population has increased. The share of all services exceeds half of the GDP created in Russia (53.5%).
The structure of industrial production in Russia is still of a raw materials nature, and the share of innovative industries is low. In 2012, oil with condensate was produced - 508.3 million tons (Russia took first place in the world in terms of production of oil) and natural gas - 655 billion cubic meters. m. (second place in the world after the USA), coal - 366 million tons of standard fuel (third place in the world after the USA and China). Electricity generated - 1069.3 billion kWh, including 173 billion kWh at nuclear power plants. (16%). The largest volume of electricity production is observed in the Tyumen region (103 billion kWh), Irkutsk region (62.6 billion kWh), and Krasnoyarsk Territory (56.7 billion kWh).
One of the effective tools for analyzing macrostructure is the intersectoral balance (IB), which is a chess table where the subject and predicate are branches of the national economy. The idea of inter-industry balance was laid down by the economic table of Quesne (1783). It first began to be developed in the 20s of the twentieth century in the USSR, its development is associated with the name of V.V. Leontiev (input-output method), a future Nobel Prize winner, received by him for using the input-output method for analysis of the American economy. Subsequently, interest in the development of input-output balances was renewed in the fifties in connection with the development of economic and mathematical methods and the use of computers. The latest versions of the MOB of the Russian economy and the national accounting system were developed in 1991, 1995 and 2011.
The modern MOB scheme is represented by three quadrants. The first quadrant reflects intra-production consumption (simple reproduction), i.e. it represents an intermediate product.
The second quadrant reflects the final product, which is sent for personal and public consumption; it also includes capital accumulation and the results of foreign trade.
The third quadrant characterizes the production of national income, i.e. it reflects the cost breakdown of national production - the so-called conditionally net production (added value). Previously, the fourth quadrant was highlighted, which reflected the process of redistribution of national income.
The SNA MBP scheme uses gross national product (GNP) and domestic product (GDP) indicators, i.e. the MBP also includes services. This scheme has expanded the range of industries and reflects sources of income in more detail.
The main characteristics of the input-output balance, along with the final and intermediate products, are the coefficients of direct and total costs. The former characterize the costs of a given industry per unit of production of other industries, the latter reflect the costs for the entire range of related industries per unit of production of a given industry.
Analysis of the intersectoral balance of both the country and individual regions allows us to see the real structure of the national economy, intersectoral connections and the effectiveness of the national economy.
The territorial structure characterizes the share of individual parts and regions in the volume of produced GDP and other economic indicators. The share of industrial and agricultural production in the European and Asian zones of Russia is presented in Table. 2.1.
Share of European and Asian zones of Russia, %
Table 2.1
As can be seen from the table, the processing industry predominates in the European zone: mechanical engineering (90%), etc. At the same time, the share of ferrous metallurgy is large - 85%, the chemical and petrochemical industry - 84%, and even the forestry and pulp and paper industries - 70%.
The Asian zone is dominated by extractive industries: fuel - 56.4%, non-ferrous metallurgy - 62%. In 2013, Siberia and the Far East provided $390 billion of the country's foreign exchange earnings out of $527 billion (74%).
- In accordance with the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), economic activity is defined as a combination of activities leading to the production of a certain list of products. An economic sector is a collection of all production units carrying out the same or similar type of production activity.
The essence of the national economy is that it represents an established system of national and social reproduction of the state, in which industries, types and forms of social labor that have developed as a result of the long historical evolutionary development of a particular country are interconnected. The characteristics of the national economy are influenced by historical and cultural traditions, the geographical location of the state, its role in the international division of labor, etc.
V.V. Leontiev defines the national economy as a system capable of self-regulation, consisting of various types of activities. Structural analysis of the national economy, according to its founder R. Bar, allows for a more complete and comprehensive analysis of economic processes. He proceeds from the fact that structure is a way of ordering various units in the economy and forming organic interaction between them.
There are two types of structure of the national economy:
1) economic structures that determine the functioning of economic units of the national economy. Studying the nature of the relationships between them is of interest, since they determine the essence of the national economy;
2) non-economic structures that determine the functioning of non-economic units - culture, education, etc. Their analysis is of interest only to the extent that these units and the relationship between them influence the functioning of the national economy. F. Peru believes that the structure of the national economy differs in the proportions and relationships between its component parts. Proportion is the value of the analyzed unit of the national economy in relation to others. Relationships are relatively stable connections between units of the national economy, capable of change and preservation.
R. Tinbergeng considers it important to carry out a structural analysis of the economy, since it allows one to determine its essence and make a forecast of the future state and development, while proceeding from the following features of the structural analysis of the national economy:
1) it allows us to more fully explain the processes occurring in the national economy;
2) it makes it possible, based on the data obtained as a result of structural analysis, to develop a more effective and efficient national economic policy that will be more flexible, adapted and relevant.
Structure of the national economy
The structure of the national economy is a set of historically established stable, capable of reproducing functional relationships between various units of the national economy. The following types of structure of the national economy are distinguished: 1) household, which implies consideration of the structure of the national economy as the relationship between households. The selection of this type of structure is due to the fact that households are a powerful economic entity, producing a significant part of the national wealth, influencing the nature of other relationships; 2) social structure, based on the division of the national economy into certain sectors that are organically interconnected. The division is made according to various criteria, for example, population groups, enterprises, types of labor. Usually there are public and private sectors of the economy; 3) sectoral structure, which involves identifying sectors of the economy and determining the nature and essence of the relationship between them. A branch of the national economy is a unit of the national economy that performs similar functional tasks in the process of social production. This type of structuring of the national economy is of great importance, as it allows for high-quality forecasting of economic development; 4) territorial structure, which involves an analysis of the geographical distribution of productive forces within the national economy - the division of the national economy into various economic regions; 5) the infrastructure of the national economy, based on the definition of the type and nature of interaction between economic spheres; 6) the structure of foreign trade, which involves analyzing the nature of the relationships between various product groups, their imports and exports.
The structure of a particular national economy is constantly changing and transforming. This is greatly influenced by scientific and technological progress, which changes the nature of production and contributes to the emergence of new industries and spheres of the economy. Changing the nature of social production, the emergence of new industries, affects the nature of relationships in the national economy. Therefore, the structure of the national economy is constantly changing, which forces us to carry out constant structural monitoring and compare the real structure with its future development.
The structure of a particular national economy is formed under the influence of many factors - geographical, cultural, social, psychological, etc. It is specific to each specific country and cannot be artificially introduced. The state can only exercise indirect influence on it.
Economic infrastructure: types and significance for the national economy
There is an ambiguous definition of infrastructure. Firstly, it is understood as a set of service systems, the main task of which is to ensure the operation of production and provide various services to the population. Secondly, infrastructure is understood as a set of units whose activities are aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the national economy.
Infrastructure as an independent area of the national economy has gone through the following stages of development:
1) the separation of agriculture and handicrafts led to the growth of cities and specialization of labor;
2) the division of agriculture, crafts and trade led to the formation of a specific area of the national economy - trade, as a result of which the role of infrastructure increased significantly.
The following main types of infrastructure in the national economy are identified.
1. Production infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the main purpose of which is to ensure the normal functioning of the production process. For example, cargo transportation, tonnage ship transportation, etc. The essence of production infrastructure is twofold. Firstly, it is aimed at maintaining the normal functioning of the material production process. Secondly, it ensures the normal functioning of the person himself and the reproduction of labor resources in the national economy.
2. Social infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is associated with ensuring the normal functioning of the population and people. Its role in the modern national economy is constantly increasing, and the main task is to ensure the livelihoods of the population at an increasingly higher quality level. The influence of social infrastructure on the national economy is that it allows for the reproduction of labor resources - the main resource of the economy.
3. Market infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the market and its development. It is represented by a collection of various organizations and institutions that ensure the activities of various sectors of the economy.
Market infrastructure consists of the following elements:
1) trade organizations;
2) stock trading;
3) banking system;
4) non-banking institutions;
5) transport system.
Sectoral structure of the national economy
The sectoral structure of the national economy consists in grouping economic entities into groups of homogeneous composition, connected by homogeneous functional characteristics - sectors of the national economy.
The sectoral structure of the national economy goes through the following stages of its development:
1) the first is associated with the active development and predominance of primary sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, mining;
2) the second is associated with the development and dominance of secondary industries - production, construction;
3) the third is associated with the development and predominance of tertiary industries - the service sector.
These stages of development of the sectoral structure of the national economy replaced each other, but for each individual country they had their own specific features.
Dynamic changes in the industry structure occur cyclically over a time period of 10 to 20 years. They are characterized by the following features:
1) increasing the importance and volume of the service industry - the intellectual, information sphere;
2) a decrease in the volume of the mining industry compared to others;
3) growth of industrial production against the background of the agricultural sector of the economy.
Scientific and technological progress has a great influence on the nature of the sectoral structure of the national economy. It leads to the fact that some industries disappear or stagnate, while others, such as nuclear energy, are actively developing. A distinctive feature is the emergence of related sectors of the economy - petrochemical, rocket and space, etc.
The industry structure is changing in the following main directions:
1) a fundamental change in production technologies;
2) dominance of the manufacturing industry compared to the mining industry;
3) development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the national economy;
4) a shift in the center of gravity towards non-production industries.
The modern sectoral structure of the Russian national economy is characterized by the predominance of the fuel and energy complex (FEC). It is one of the most capital-intensive industries, and therefore there is an outflow of capital from other industries. The orientation of the fuel and energy complex to the international market makes Russia dependent on global price fluctuations. As a result, more than half of the country's GDP is generated from the sale of resources. The predominance of extractive industries has a negative impact on the overall rate of development of the national economy. The dominance of the fuel and energy complex hinders the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy.
Theory of “Industry Balance”
The theory of “Inter-industry balance” was developed in the USA by V.V. Leontiev as an effective tool for analyzing and forecasting structural relationships in the economy. It is based on the possibility of achieving general macroeconomic equilibrium, for which a model of this state has been developed, including the structural relationship of all stages of the production process - production, distribution or exchange and final consumption. The essence of this method lies in the dual definition of the economic sector - as a consumer and as a producer. To determine the degree and nature of the relationship between supply and demand for a good, a system of technological coefficients is used - an indicator that reflects the volume of average costs of products in a certain industry required to produce a unit of the good.
In this model, an input-output balance scheme is used for analysis, consisting of four main quadrants, reflecting certain stages of the production process:
1) volumes of consumption for production needs - the first quadrant;
2) grouping a product depending on how it is used - the second quadrant;
3) inclusion of the added value of the product, for example, remuneration of employees, taxes, etc. – the third quadrant;
4) the structure of national income distribution – the fourth quadrant.
The theory of “Industry balance” allows:
1) analyze and forecast the development of the main sectors of the national economy at various levels - regional, intra-industry, inter-product;
2) make an objective and relevant forecast of the pace and nature of development of the national economy;
3) determine the characteristics of the main macroeconomic indicators at which the state of equilibrium of the national economy will occur. As a result of the impact on them, they will approach an equilibrium state;
5) determine the resource intensity of the entire national economy and its individual sectors;
6) determine directions for increasing efficiency and rationalizing the international and regional division of labor.
The grounds for assigning units of the national economy to a certain industry may be different - the similarity of the technological and production process, the homogeneity of the necessary raw materials, the nature of the products produced.
Ownership structure in the national economy
The ownership structure is of great importance for the national economy, as it determines the nature and essence of the processes occurring in it - production, consumption, distribution.
The following property contents are distinguished:
1) the economic essence of property is built on the relationship between the subject - the owner and the object - property. As a rule, property is property on which the production process depends - economic resources, factors of production;
2) the legal essence of property presupposes generally accepted rules for regulating property at the legislative level.
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property entities (owners):
1) state and municipal government bodies.
2) legal entity;
3) citizen – an individual.
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property objects (property):
1) intellectual property;
2) movable property;
3) real estate.
The structure of ownership in the national economy reflects the nature of the existing relationships between objects and subjects of ownership. It is specific to each specific country and is formed under the influence of a combination of historical, cultural, and psychological factors.
The modern property structure of Russia is characterized by:
1) the predominance of shadow property relations. The state seeks to regulate at the legislative level relations of ownership, disposal and use of property. In the case of the shadow economy, these relations are not regulated by the state, but occur outside the legal framework (this is a set of economic relations that are not regulated and not taken into account at the legislative level);
2) the process of denationalization, i.e. privatization of property. The experience of developed countries shows that active economic growth can only be realized in a situation where economic entities have a direct interest in the results of their work. In order to increase the economic interest of business entities, the process of privatization was launched - the transfer to individuals and legal entities of property rights that previously belonged to the state. This process was chaotic in Russia and contributed little to economic growth;
3) underdevelopment of small business. In developed countries, the basis of the economy is small enterprises with private ownership of the means of production. In Russia, due to the lack of necessary conditions for this, it practically does not develop.
Aggregate economic potential: concept and types
The total economic potential of the national economy is the total ability of sectors of the national economy to produce certain goods, differing in qualitative and quantitative characteristics, over a specific time period.
The main components of the total economic potential are:
1) human resources, namely their quantity and quality;
2) the volume and structure of industrial production potential;
3) volume and structure of agricultural potential;
4) the extent, quality and structure of the country’s transport system;
5) scientific and technical potential of the country;
6) the degree of development of the non-productive sector of the economy;
7) quantity, quality and degree of rationality of use of minerals.
The total economic potential directly depends on the total productive forces and the volume of wealth of the national economy. It directly reflects the position of the national economy in the world economic system.
Economic potential depends on the total production capabilities of all sectors of the national economy. The degree of completeness of its use is distinguished by the degree of development of the national economy, since the determination of the total economic potential is made by correlating the volumes and structure of the actual production of goods and the degree of use of production capacities - production potential.
The volume of economic potential indicates the level of economic independence of the national economy, its position in the world economy and the quality of life of the population. The main component of the total economic potential is human resources, namely their professional and qualification structure. For the most part, the level of industrial development is of decisive importance for it. The total economic potential should be analyzed from the following two perspectives:
1) from the position of resources available in the national economy that can be used;
2) from the position of the ability, with the help of resources available in the national economy, to carry out specific economic activities for the production of goods.
Economic resources cannot be equated with economic potential, since for the purposes of economic growth it is necessary to combine economic resources and their effective use. This is due to the fact that the real volume of production of goods directly depends on the use of a set of resources - natural, investment, scientific, technical and human.
The total economic potential is the basis of the national economy, on which its normal functioning, as well as the rate and scale of economic growth, directly depend. According to its characteristics, it is heterogeneous and exists in several main types.
The main types of total economic potential of the national economy are the following. 1. Natural resource potential is the totality of natural resources that are currently used or can be attracted for economic activity.
According to one of the classifications, traditional resources (mineral, water, biological) and non-traditional (wind, sun) are distinguished. They are also divided into renewable (biological resources, water power and solar energy) and non-renewable (mineral resources, soil, water). Such resources as territory, place of residence of the population and location of production facilities are also of great importance.
Natural resource potential consists of such types of economic resources as:
1) agricultural;
2) non-productive;
3) industrial.
They include targeted and non-targeted resources. Single-purpose resources are resources that can be used exclusively for economic activities. These include, for example, mineral resources. Their distinctive feature is their exclusive affiliation with economic activity. Non-targeted resources are resources that can be used both for economic activity and for the benefit of the population - ensuring normal living conditions. These include, for example, water and forest resources, which can be used both for economic activities and for recreation of the population.
2. Human potential is one of the main types of total economic potential and is distinguished by specific and qualitative characteristics. The required population size is distinguished by certain qualitative indicators (qualification and professional structure) and is a necessary resource, without which not only the development of the national economy, but also its normal functioning is impossible. Accordingly, the greater the degree of provision with human potential, the greater the potential ability of the national economy to grow.
3. Production potential is the real ability of economic entities to produce public goods at an increasingly higher quantitative and qualitative level.
The crisis state of the national economy has affected a sharp decline in production potential. At the same time, it is influenced by the same factors that are characteristic of the production potential of the world economy, namely scientific and technological progress. There is a high rate of automation and mechanization of the production process, which significantly changes the structure of production potential. Its distinctive feature is the creation of fundamentally new sectors of the economy as a result of innovative scientific and technological developments.
Economic resources: their types and properties
Of great importance in the national economy are factors that determine the nature of its functioning, the pace, structure and scale of development. They represent the basis for economic growth. Essentially, this is a type of good that can be used to produce other goods. Economic resources are the type of resources necessary for the production of goods - goods and services. There are the following types of economic resources:
1) entrepreneurial potential. This is the population’s ability to organize the production of goods in various forms;
2) knowledge. These are specific scientific and technical developments that make it possible to organize the production and consumption of goods at a higher level than the previous one;
3) natural resources. These are specific minerals, for example, land, subsoil, as well as the climatic and geographical location of the country;
4) human resources. This is a specific number of the country’s population, distinguished by certain qualitative indicators - education, culture, professionalism. Taken together, human resources are the most important economic resource, since without it it is impossible to imagine the normal functioning of the national economy;
5) financial resources. This is capital represented by specific funds available in the national economy.
Natural resources are quite diverse in composition and include land, energy, water, biological, forest, mineral, recreational, and climatic resources. Their use is interconnected (for example, to use land resources you need equipment, and for its operation you need mineral resources - fuel). Natural resources are divided into:
1) explored. Their extraction is already underway;
2) reliable. Their existence is reliably known, but for various reasons their production is not carried out;
3) forecast. These are minerals that hypothetically should exist, but this is not known for certain.
According to experts, at the current rate of mining, their reserves will be exhausted in about 500 years. At the same time, the economy’s need for them is constantly increasing by an average of 10% annually. To increase the efficiency of using this resource, resource-saving technologies are constantly being developed and introduced.
Human resources in our country are limited. Despite the high level of unemployment, there is a shortage of human resources that differ in certain qualitative characteristics - professional and qualification level. There is an acute shortage of employees of certain qualifications and professions, which significantly impedes the development of the national economy.
The main property of economic resources is their limitation while the need for them is unlimited for the production of goods - goods and services. From this property follows the natural need for the effective use of economic resources to satisfy the needs of the population as fully as possible. In this case, it is necessary to constantly make decisions about the appropriate allocation of resources, that is, about their use in such a way as to get the maximum result from it.
Another property of economic resources is their complementarity. For example, to rationalize the use of natural resources, knowledge is used - an economic resource that, based on scientific and technological developments, makes it possible to make complementarity more effective and optimal. In turn, knowledge forms the basis of human resources and consists of specific knowledge, skills, and professional skills of employees.
The mobility of economic resources lies in their ability to move between industries, regions, and countries. For each economic resource, the degree of mobility will be different and will depend on many both objective and subjective factors. For example, the economic resource – land – will have minimal mobility, since it is impossible to change its geographical location. Human resources that are able to move between national economies are characterized by the greatest mobility. An important property of economic resources is their interchangeability, which consists in the ability to replace one economic resource with another.
For example, in order to increase production efficiency, you can use both entrepreneurial potential - change production technology, and knowledge - train employees so that they perform their job duties more effectively. The ability to replace economic resources is limited and cannot be produced completely and totally. For example, capital cannot completely replace human resources. The initial replacement of resources may bring a positive result, but in the future, economic activity becomes significantly more complicated and its efficiency may be reduced.
The main task of an economic entity is to constantly increase the degree of efficiency and rationality of the use of economic resources, for which their properties are used - interchangeability, complementarity, mobility.
Within the national economy, the circulation of economic resources occurs in their respective markets (for example, the capital market, labor market). Within these markets there is also a certain segmentation (for example, the labor market consists of a segment of managers, economists, and engineers).
National wealth is part of the total economic potential of the national economy
The main component of the total economic potential of the national economy is national wealth. Its volume largely determines the scale and pace of economic growth, which makes its assessment relevant as one of the indicators of the functioning of the national economy.
National wealth is the total volume of economic resources and material values necessary for the normal production of goods - goods and services.
National wealth consists of the following main elements:
1) non-reproductive element. This is a set of resources that cannot be reproduced and are exhaustible, for example minerals, cultural and artistic monuments;
2) reproductive element. This is a set of resources, the volume of which can be increased in the process of economic activity, for example, non-productive and productive assets;
3) an intangible element. These are resources that do not have material manifestations, for example, the intellectual potential of the country, the quality of life of the population, scientific and technical potential;
4) the volume of property obligations to other countries.
The volume of national wealth allows:
1) determine the volume of benefits - goods and services located in the national economy over a certain time period;
2) determine the total value of natural resource potential, since the rate of economic growth directly depends on it;
3) carry out a comprehensive accounting of intangible resources of the national economy.
When assessing the real volume of national wealth, only those of its components are taken into account, the value of which can be determined reliably - based on specific economic practices. Therefore, a total assessment of the real volume of national wealth is not common in the economic practice of countries around the world, since this is associated with significant costs.
In the domestic practice of economic analysis, national wealth has not been assessed at the state level. Related data is presented only in terms of estimates of non-financial and productive assets and household property. Due to the lack of a generally accepted methodology for assessing national wealth, the elements of Russia's national wealth were not calculated by the State Statistics Committee.
In practice, elements of the System of National Accounts (SNA) are used to calculate national wealth. This allows you to determine its approximate volume, but does not require serious material and financial costs. For this purpose, such a component of the SNA is used as a set of institutional units by sector.
Types and essence of economic systems
An economic system is a set of economic processes occurring in it, the dominant forms of ownership and methods of its organization. The economic system has a direct impact on the characteristics of the economic activities of economic entities.
The economic system of the national economy consists of the following main elements:
1) socio-economic, determining the specifics of relations between economic entities regarding property, the order of ownership and distribution of basic economic resources and the results of economic activities of economic entities;
2) forms of organizing the activities of economic entities;
3) forms and methodology of state regulation;
4) economic relations between economic entities.
In the world economy, there are various economic systems of national economies. Their formation and functioning are determined by the specific historical, cultural, climatic and natural conditions of the countries.
The main models of economic systems of the national economy are:
1) American, based on the encouragement and development of entrepreneurial activity. In its structure there is a clear disproportion between the richest and poorest parts of the population. Equalizing the level of income is not the main goal of the state, but the emphasis is on the personal economic activity of business entities;
2) Japanese, based on the large difference between the growth of labor productivity and the level of wages. This makes it possible to make goods produced in the national economy competitive on the world market due to low prices. It is possible only with the specific cultural, religious and psychological characteristics of the population, which exist, for example, in Japan;
3) Swedish, based on an active social policy pursued by the state, the goal of which is to reduce the difference in the standard of living of the population. To achieve this, a tax system is used to effectively redistribute resources within the economy.
4) German, based on achieving sustainable economic development through the combination of all forms of economic activity. The state pursues an active social policy, and the emphasis is on the development of small businesses.
Russia is in an intermediate state, which does not allow it to be classified as any type of economic system. The simultaneous combination of elements of all types makes its economy transitional, in its infancy.
Source - Koshelev A.N. National economy. Lecture notes, Moscow, Eksmo, 2008
After watching this video lesson, everyone will be able to get an idea of the topic “Sectoral structure of the Russian economy.” During the lesson, you will learn about the characteristics of the natural and economic regions of the country where economic facilities are located, the reasons for this distribution, and how their location is related to management interests.
Economy (or economy)- this is the totality of all wealth that is created by nature and human activity and is aimed at meeting the needs of human society.
The main task of the economy is to maximally satisfy the needs of human society for food, goods and services. Any economy answers three basic questions:
1. What to produce? Those. what goods and services are needed.
2. How to produce? What technologies to use to produce these goods and services.
3. For whom to produce? How are the goods and services produced distributed?
Geography answers the question: where are the main economic facilities that will produce goods and services located? At the same time, geography must take into account the characteristics of production, the reasons and factors that influence the location of this production, but also, of course, the characteristics of the movement of these goods and services across the country.
Farm is a structure consisting of a huge number of different elements.
The smallest “building block” of any economic structure is an enterprise or institution.
Company- an independent economic unit that performs certain functions
There are more than three million enterprises in Russia. But many of these enterprises produce similar products, so enterprises that produce homogeneous products and perform certain tasks in the country’s economy are united into larger groups, which are called sectors of the economy.
Branch of the economy- is a collection of enterprises producing homogeneous products or services.
This is a branch of the economy that produces products to satisfy human needs.
All these enterprises produce very different products. All these industries use different raw materials and their own technologies. Their final product is very different from each other. But together they produce food that meets people's needs. Therefore, all these productions are very different. They are combined into one branch of the economy - food industry.
Large sectors of the economy - industry, agriculture, transport, utilities - form the sectoral structure of the economy.
Rice. 1. Sectoral structure of the Russian economy
Sectoral structure of the economy- is a set of industries that satisfy the homogeneous needs of society and form a single economy of the country.
The largest sector of our country's economy is industry. It produces 31.5% of our country's gross domestic product. In turn, industry is divided into smaller industries, which can be combined into two large groups: heavy industry, light industry and food industry. 
In turn, heavy, light and food industries are divided into smaller industries. For example, the fuel industry is a heavy industry. It is divided into gas, oil, coal, etc. Heavy industry is a group of industries that produces goods that are needed by other industries. Engaged in mining, production of electricity, metal and various machinery and equipment. Light and food industry- These are goods that are necessary to satisfy people's needs.
The sectoral structure of the economy is formed as the formation of human society occurs. In world statistics, it is usually customary to combine all sectors of the economy into groups called sectors. As the economy of any country develops, sectors appear in its economy.
Primary sector of the economy is a group of industries that is engaged in the extraction of natural resources and then their use. The primary sector includes the mining industry, agriculture, hunting and fishing. These are some of the oldest human activities.
TO secondary sector of the economy include all industries that are associated with the processing of natural resources. We have already said that the economy produces metal and there is such an industry as metallurgy; various chemical products are produced, and this is what the chemical industry does; The electric power industry produces electricity. All these industries are secondary sector industries.
Tertiary sector- This is not the production of material goods, but the provision of services. The tertiary sector includes transport, the service sector, hairdressers, theaters, and educational institutions.
Finally, at the end of the 20th - at the beginning of the 21st century, the quaternary sector, which includes science, finance, management. A sector that is primarily aimed at working with information, receiving and processing it.
At each stage of development of human society, one of the sectors is the main, main, leading. By the number of people employed in this sector and by the volume of products it produces.
To date, historians and economists have identified three stages that human society has gone through in its development: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial.
The first stage is pre-industrial (agrarian). The leading sphere of economic activity is the primary sphere. The main industry at this stage is agriculture. This type of economic structure has been preserved in some countries of the world to the present day. These are the most underdeveloped countries in Africa.
The second stage is industrial. The leading sector of the economy at this stage is industry. Primary sphere - secondary sphere. This type of economy is typical for most modern countries. Such countries can be found in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Vivid examples in this case are Ukraine and China.
The third stage is post-industrial. Some countries have moved to this stage. Such as some Western European countries (for example, Germany, USA, Japan). At this stage, the leading sector of the economy is the non-production or service sector. The main sectors of the economy are tertiary or quaternary. And the main product is information.
Russia is at a transitional stage from the industrial to the post-industrial stage of its development. At the same time, we can say that the large size of our territory and the large number of different federal subjects that are located on its territory have different levels of economic development. There are territories on the territory of Russia, for example, such as Kalmykia, Tyva or some regions of the Far North, where the leading sector of the economy remains the primary sector - the mining industry, etc. The Urals, the Volga region, and, in general, Central Russia are examples of territories where the main type is the industrial structure of the economy. And the leading sectors are industry. Well, such large cities as Moscow and St. Petersburg can already be considered that they have already entered the post-industrial era. That is why we say that Russia is just at the transition from the industrial to the post-industrial stages of its development.
How and why do changes occur in the sectoral structure of the economy? For quite a long time, this issue was not clear to scientists and economists. In the 20-30s of the 20th century, the Russian scientist Nikolai Dmitrievich Kondratiev created a theory that was called the theory of large cycles. In this theory N.D. Kondratiev substantiated the reasons that lead to the change from one type of management to another.
Rice. 2. N.D. Kondratiev
Rice. 3. Theory of large cycles (Kondratiev cycles)
Rice. 4. Economic development schedule
He identified large Kondratiev cycles. Each such cycle has an upward and downward phase. During the increase, new industries emerge and new technologies develop. The economy is developing at a very fast pace, and new products and results of economic activity are appearing. Gradually, economic growth is slowing down. Leading industries are beginning to gradually curtail production. Businesses are moving to other parts of the country. Crisis phenomena begin in the economy. But this is an impetus for all those discoveries and inventions that were made at the stage of economic development to begin to be used and applied. This was the impetus for new economic development. At the same time, new sectors of the economy are entering the economic arena, which contribute to its further development. N.D. Kondratiev believed that these economic cycles last approximately 50 years. He installed, Fig. 4. Economic development schedule, that changes in technological structures (or economic cycles) are the reason for the changes that occur in the sectoral economy of any country, including Russia.
Sectors of the economy interact with each other. And as a result, inter-industry complexes are formed in the economy.
Intersectoral complex- is a set of economic sectors that closely interact with each other and produce the same type of products.
For example, the fuel and energy complex. It consists of two sectors: fuel and energy. In this case, the raw material for production is fuel, and the end result is energy. At the same time, fuel, coal, oil, gas are also energy resources. Inter-industry complexes sometimes include very different industries that belong to different sectors of the economy. For example, the agro-industrial complex. The basis of this complex is agriculture, which belongs to the primary sector. Transportation of agricultural products and everything that is needed to meet the needs of agriculture is carried out by transport, and this is already a tertiary sector of the economy. For the development of agriculture, mineral fertilizers, plant protection products and pesticides are needed. These products are produced by the chemical industry, a secondary sector industry. And finally, in order for agriculture to develop, science is needed, which will train personnel, conduct scientific research, and these are already industries that belong to the quaternary sector.
There are several inter-industry complexes in the Russian economy. This is a fuel and energy complex, a complex of structural materials, a machine-building, agro-industrial and infrastructure complex.
- V.P. Dronov, V.Ya. Rum Geography of Russia Population and economy 9th grade.
- Wikipedia (). Kondratyev Nikolay Dmitrievich
- Avmol51.narod.ru (). Kondratiev cycles
- Unified collection of digital educational resources (). Business cycle phases
- Unified collection of digital educational resources (). Functional and sectoral structure of the Russian economy
The national economy is the historically established system of social reproduction of the country, an interconnected system of industries and types of production, covering the forms of social labor that have developed in the national economy.
Goals for the functioning of the national economy: high level of employment; stable and high rates of economic growth; stable price level; positive foreign trade balance.
The following are used as generalizing indicators of the results of the functioning of the national economy over a certain period of time: GNP, GDP, NIP, ND, AD, RD.
GNP (gross national product) is the value of all final products and services produced in the economy for the year, created by the subjects of a given country both within the national territory and abroad.
GDP (gross domestic product) is the value of all final products and services produced in the economy for the year, created by all producers in the territory of a given country, regardless of the nationality of the factors of production.
Methods for calculating GNP and GDP:
In terms of expenses, i.e. GNP (GDP) is the sum of expenses of subjects of the national economy for the acquisition of the final national product.
Types of expenses:
Personal consumption expenditures (C);
Gross private domestic investment (I);
® Public procurement of goods and services (G);
» Expenditures abroad on the purchase of domestic goods (net exports) (X).
Thus, GNP (GDP) by expenditure:
GNP = C + I + G + X.
By income, i.e. GNP (GDP) is the sum of income of subjects of the national economy from the sale of the final national product.
Types of income: Remuneration for the work of employees (Z) Rent payments (income of owners of land, buildings and structures from renting them out) (R) Interest on loans granted (K) Profit (profit of the corporate and non-corporate sectors of the economy) (P) Depreciation deductions (A) Indirect taxes on business (state income) (N6) Thus, GNP (GDP) by income:
GNP = Z + R + K + P + A + N6.
By value added (production method), i.e. GNP is the sum of value added by all producers of goods and services in a given country.
Added value (VA) is the value created in the production process that a company (industry) adds to purchased materials and services in the process of production and sales of products.
GDP (GNP) calculated at current market prices is called nominal, and calculated at constant prices - real.
The deflator (price index) expresses the differences between nominal and real GDP (GNP). This is an indicator characterizing the change in GDP (GNP) due to changes in prices, and is defined as the ratio of nominal GDP (GNP) to real GDP (GNP).
Other macroeconomic indicators:
NNP (net national product) is the amount of final products and services remaining for consumption after replacing written-off equipment.
NNP=GNP-A
ND (national income) - characterizes the amount of income of all suppliers of production resources with the help of which CNP is created,
POISON = NNP - N6
ND is divided into two parts: the accumulation fund and the consumption fund.
LD (personal income) - shows redistribution processes in national income, i.e. how much money was received for personal consumption of the population.
LD=ND - corporate income taxes - retained corporate earnings - social security contributions + transfer payments.
Disposable income (disposable income) is income that can be used for direct spending by households, appearing in the forms of consumer spending and personal savings.
RD-LD - Total amount of personal taxes.
3. NB (national wealth) - the totality of material and intangible goods that society has and which were created by the labor of people over the entire previous period.
NB structure:
Material results:
Fixed assets (production and non-production);
Material working capital (inventories of raw materials, work in progress, inventories of finished products);
Commodity stocks of the national economy;
State reserves, including insurance, defense reserves, gold reserves;
Durable household items (individual means of transport, furniture, cultural and household items);
Natural resources involved in economic turnover (developed lands, forests, waters, subsoil resources, etc.);
Intangible results:
Scientific potential;
Educational potential;
Qualification potential;
Cultural potential.
The problem of national wealth has been the subject of study by many economists. The NB was first calculated by the English economist W. Petty in 1664. In France, the first estimate of the NB dates back to 1789, in the USA - to 1805, in Russia - to 1864.
Technological and socio-economic approaches to defining the meaning of the term “national economy” make it possible to present it as a complex systemic phenomenon that contains several relatively independent elements.
In other words, national economic structure (economy) is a set of proportions and relationships of all elements of the country’s economic system under given conditions and at a given point in time. The result of a change in economic structure is a structural effect. It reflects the relationship between the structure change index and the growth of the most important indicators of the dynamics of the economic system.
In the structure of the national economy, as a rule, the following elements are distinguished:
Reproductive structure;
Social structure;
Industry structure;
Regional (territorial) structure;
Foreign trade structure
Infrastructure of a market economy.
All types of proportions are inextricably linked and are in close unity and interconnection.
Reproductive structure defines a set of proportions and relationships that characterize the growth possibilities of the economic system and its effectiveness. The most important reproductive proportions are the relationships between divisions of social reproduction.
Three divisions of social reproduction can be distinguished.
First division- part of social production, the products of which are means of production.
Second division- part of social production, the products of which are sold exclusively to the population.
Third division social production - part of social production, the products of which are not sold for money, but are distributed or simply reach consumers “for free” (army, government agencies, law enforcement agencies, basic science, education, healthcare, social security and all other enterprises and institutions, activities which are paid by the state budget, receiving funds for this from the first and second divisions in the form of taxes, and, secondly, regulates monetary circulation in the country.
The population is also part of the reproductive structure, who invests her labor in three divisions of social production and receives cash payment and other monetary income for this.
Social structure. The characteristics of the social structure of the national economy are based on property relations. In accordance with this criterion, in countries with developed market economies, two large sectors can be distinguished: public and private (this includes individual, joint-stock, labor and other forms of ownership).
Industry structure The national economy is a ratio of industries, i.e. qualitatively homogeneous economic units in production activities. Here branches of material production can be distinguished(industry, agriculture) and non-production sphere. A group of enterprises that produce products intended for the same purpose, using similar or identical resources and technologies, forms a corresponding industry within the national economy. For example, within the light industry there are food, footwear, textile, etc.
Territorial (regional) structure determines the division of the national economy into economic regions. For example, in our state we can distinguish the elements of this structure in accordance with the accepted administrative division into regions, districts, etc. (and in the USA the territorial structure is divided into states).
The regional structure presupposes a certain connection between industries and enterprises with sources of raw materials, energy, sales markets, and the availability of labor resources. This structure should be such that there are constant connections between industries in the production of products, productive forces are rationally distributed across regions, transport costs are minimal, which together increases production efficiency.
Foreign trade structure determined by the level of development of the productive forces of society, the state of the economy and its structure. Thus, the exports of highly developed countries (USA, European countries) are focused on knowledge-intensive and technological products, while imports are dominated by raw materials, energy resources, and products of environmentally harmful industries. As for developing countries, their exports are related to raw materials and supplies, while imports are dominated by manufactured products, machinery, equipment, etc.
Infrastructure forms a set of proportions and relationships of interconnected institutions operating within specific markets and performing certain functions. The infrastructure of markets for goods and services consists of commodity exchanges, wholesale and retail trade, fairs and auctions, advertising and marketing companies, etc. The capital market, which includes the credit market as well as the securities market, is represented by commercial banks, insurance companies, investment funds, government finance, the stock exchange, etc. The labor market is organized in the form of a labor exchange.
Now that we have understood the structure of the national economy, we can begin to consider structural policies.
